Tài liệu Fauna and flora of the bible

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE BIBLE
Prepared in cooperation with the Committee on Translations of the United Bible Societies
Second Edition



Contents
Introduction
Introduction to the Secon d Edition
Abbreviations ã.ã ã ã ãã
System of Transliteration from Hebrew
System of Transliteration fr om Greek
Fauna of the Bible .
Flora of the Bible
Bibliography
Index of English and Latin Terms
Index of Greek Terms
I ndex of Terms from Other Languages
Index of Hebrew and Aramaic Terms
Index of Bible References

Introduction
For the Bible translator perhaps no aspect of his work is more complex,
confusing, and time-consuming than the problems encountered
in attempting to render satisfactorily the terms for different plants
and animals of the Scriptures. Though there are a number of books
which have been published concerning the fauna and flora of the Bible,
most of these prove to be of relatively little help to the translato r.
In some instances these books simply contain too much information,
and extracting what is specifically applicable to the translator's
problems proves to be enormously difficult. Some treatments, especially
those which are highly technical, deal so much with differences
of scholarly viewpoints that the translator is often more
confused than helped. In other instances no attempt is made to deal
with some of the so-called marginal difficulties, for example, the
use of such terms in figurative expressions--precisely the area in
which the translator often encounters his most severe complications.
In addition, many treatments of Biblical fauna and flora have inadequate
illustrations, so that those who are participating in the translation
program are not able to picture what the plant or animal
would look like and therefore find it difficult to suggest a local equivalent.
In order to help translators deal with certain aspects of their
problems of finding satisfactory equivalents, this special volume on
the fauna and flora of the Bible has been prepared. As may be
readily noted from the system employed in dealing with the various
terms, the names of animals and plants are listed alphabetically in
English, normally based on the Revised Standard Version of the corresponding He brew and/or Greek terms. The suggested interpretations
or renderings are not, however, restricted to the equivalents
emplo yed as headings. Note, for example, the wide variety of
usa ge un der the term for owl.
. Imme diately following the general term is the scientific designatton,
or de signations if two or more possible interpretations of a Hebrew or G reek term are involved, e. g. the treatment of chameleon,
a suggested translation of a Hebrew term which may also refer to a
barn owl. Wherever possible or relevant, both the genus and the
species of plants and animals are given, but often only the genus is
mentioned, since there may be no way of knowing precisely which species
is involved. Furthermore, in many instances Hebrew and Greek
terms designate classes of animals and plants rather than being names
for particular species.
The third type of information is the corresponding Hebrew and/ or
Greek terms. In some instances there are a considerable number of
words, as in the case of Hebrew terms for goat, and wherever possible
or relevant, an attempt is made to distinguish the various meanings
involved.
Far more important than even the scientific nomenclature or the
detailed listing of Greek and Hebrew equivalents is the next section
under each term in which ( 1) the animal or plant is described, (2)
any special peculiarities are listed (especially those which might be
relevant in determining the meaning or usage of the Hebrew and Greek
terms), (3) problems of identification are discussed (including the
citing of scholarly evidence), and (4) features of appearance and behavior,
helpful in explaining Biblical treatments (especially in figura tive
usage), are dealt with. In a number of cases there are also brief
discussions of some critical problems, especially those involving
historical evidenc e, for exa mple, in the treatmen t of camel. This
descriptive section is especially important to the translator and
really constitutes the justification for this volume.
For some terms there are unusually complex problems. For example,
in attempting to render behemoth (an English borrowing from
Hebrew), it is suggested that in many contexts it would appear that
hippopotamus would probably be the most satisfactory equivalent. On
the other hand, in Job 40.15 such a translation would be quite ridiculous,
for though most of the description which occurs in the following
three verses may be said to fit the hippopotamus relatively well, the
idea that his tail becomes stiff like a cedar ' is simply not appropriate,
for the hippopotamus has a ridiculously small tail. Some persons
have suggested that perhaps the crocodile would be a more logical
equivalent, and this is what the New E nglish Bible has used, but only
by altering rather radically some of the syntactic structures, so
that the crocodile devours cattle as if they were grass rather than
eating grass like an ox. This is, of course, only one of many difficulties
which this volume considers.
The fin al section under each heading consists of a list of references,
which are exhaustive if the term or terms are relatively infrequent;
but if the occurrences are numerous the reader is referred
to a concordance.
Insofar as possible this book on fauna and flora tries to anticipate
the major problems which Bible translators face, but quite naturally
not all the difficulties can be handled. Under sycamore, for
example, it is clearly stated that this refers to a tree which belongs
to the fig family (of which the mulberry is also a member). It does
not state that the sycamore tree known generally in Europe and
America, and which is such an appreciated shade tree, is in no way
related to the Biblical sycamore. Furthermore, no attempt is made
to resolve the many special problems which arise in individual contexts.
For example, in speaking of the vine in John 15, one must attempt
to find some corresponding plant which is pruned in order to
bear more fruit. In many parts of the world there is simply no
vine -like plant which is so treated. It should also be quite understandable
that this book makes no attempt to deal systematically
with all the problems of Biblical symbolism. For example, in
speaking of gathering figs from thistles (or thornbushes), the
specific identification of the fruit fig is not so important as the fact
of getting delicious fruit from a troublesome bush which is never
known to produce fruit of any kind. On the other hand, in Luke 13.7
the parable of digging around and fertilizing a fig tree so that it may
have at least one more chance to produce fruit, may be regarded as
being symbolically significant. At least for some exegetes this reference
to the fig tree is an allusion to Israel. Problems such as
these are treated in the various Translators Handbooks published
by the United Bible Societies and really cannot be handled in detail
in a volume such as this one, which is designed to provide general
background information rather than specific solutions to particular
problems.
The actual answers which translators may arrive at may differ
quite widely. In some instances one may be able to employ a term
for a related species. Owls, for example, are almost worldwide,
and though the specific owl existing in Bible times may not occur in
the region of the receptor language, one can always choose the local
term for an owl which is more or less of the same size and behavior
habits.
On the other hand, one may often have to employ a term for
something belonging to quite a different species, but having some of
the same essential features. For example, cedar in the Scriptures
refers to a wood which was aromatic and greatly valued for
construction. (In reality, the English term cedar is often, in current
usage, applied to wood which is produced by cypresses, junipers,
and even certain tropical trees completely unrelated to cedars.) Accordingly,
many translators have employed a term which designates
this type of prized timber (and the corresponding trees) rather than
attempt to borrow a word such as cedar, which would not have meaning
to the people.
Another solution may be a general descriptive equivalent. For
example, in place of behemoth one may use a term such as huge
animal. Similarly, in talking about wolves in sheep's clothing,
some translators have used fierce animals looking like tame animals.
On the other hand, for this type of idiomatic saying, some
languages already possess a well-established equivalent, e. g. leopards
looking like goats.
In some instances translators have avoided the problems of a
specific term by reproducing only one of the relevant components
of such a term. In Exodus 16.31, manna is likened to coriander
seed. It does not help the reader much to have one unknown substance,
such as manna, likened to another unknown substance such
as coriander seed. Hence, some translators have simply used a
phrase such as like small seed.
As already indicated, there is one more solution, namely, borrowing;
and for a number of animals and plants of the Bible this is
seemingly the only satisfactory solution. For example, most translators
simply borrow a term such as camel, adapting it generally
to the form of the word as used in the dominant language (often a
trade or national language) of the area. Whenever such zero words
are i ntroduced into a text, there should be some marginal help, usually
in a glossa ry.
Which of the various solutions a translator may feel is warranted
in a particular instance will depend upon several factors. For one
thing, he must carefully consider the existing tradition in translating,
that is, the practice of other translations of the Scriptures into this
receptor language. Of course, if the Bible is being translated into a
language for the first time, one is in a sense freer to experiment,
but only up to a point, for in all such instances there is normally
some relatively well-established tradition in the dominant trade or
national language of the area, and more often than not any new Ianguage
must conform to the patterns which have already been accepted
as theologically valid.
Another factor influencing the type of solution which a translator
employs is the degree of cultural proximity to the Biblical life and
times. For example, a translator in East Africa can often approximate
the fauna and flora of the Scriptures quite closely, for there
are so many animals and plants which are alike and so many cultural
attitudes toward these which are similar.
One must, however, also reckon with the factor of degree of
cultural insecurity possessed by the people speaking a particular receptor
language. If such people are quite insecure, they are often
likely to demand very close adherence to the literal forms of the
Biblical expressions and terms. They frequently prefer to have borrowed
words which they do not understand rather than venture to
employ terms which may designate related, but not exact, equivalents.
Anything less than what is technically correct may be
interpreted by such persons as being a case of paternalism.
In cases in which the speakers of a receptor language are very
sophisticated in their knowledge of the world and the differences
which exist, one can also employ quite technical equivalents, but
what may seem perfectly understandable to educated people may be
utterly unintelligible to the masses. One must, therefore, always
proceed with caution in using highly specialized vocabulary.
At the same time, what one places in the text of a translation
will depend in very large measure on what one is prepared to place
in the footnotes or in the glossary . The Bible Societ ies generally
regard the publication of Scripture s w ithout adequate marginal helps
as a serious deficiency. They, therefore, want to encourage the introduction
of marginal helps dealing with historical backgrounds and
cultural differences which may be essential for a satisfactory understanding
of the text. A glossary of some two hundred words is usually
a necessity and an average of between one and two marginal
notes per page is usually required if people are to comprehend the
setting in which the Biblical events took place and if they are to appreciate
the cultural differences which contribute so much to the meaning
of the message.
The United Bible Societies are much indebted to the Rev. Dr.
K. E. Jordt J¢rgensen for the basic research which went into the preparation
of this volume. Moreover, the Danish Bible Society is to
be especially thanked for its wholehearted support of this program
during the several years in which it was being carried out. Special
thanks is also due to the Rev. Clifford Culshaw for his careful editing
and verification of the section on flora. It has been especially
useful to have in the preparation of this volume the collaboration of
the artists who have prepared the excellent illustrative drawings:
Mr. G. W. Smith for the section on fauna and Mrs. U. Lollesgaard
for the section on flora. Thanks are due to Mrs. J. Sheffield and
especially to Miss Edyth Banks for preparing the fina l form of the
manuscript.
Even though this volume cannot be expected to provide automatic
answers to all the problems of fauna and flora which the Bible translater
faces , nevertheless, it should go a long way in providing the
indispensable background information on the basis of which intelligent
decisions can be made.