Thạc Sĩ Creating constructivist learning environments with digital storytelling

iii

Abstract
In recent years the use of new technologies in educational systems has increased worldwide,
as digital cameras, personal computers, scanners, and easy-to-use software have become
available to educators to harness the digital world. The impact of new technologies in
educational contexts has been very positive; new technologies have given educators the
opportunity to enhance their knowledge, skills, and therefore enhance the standard of
education. Researchers have found that student engagement, achievement and motivation are
enhanced through integration of such technologies. However, education systems still face
many challenges: one of these challenges is how to enhance student engagement to provide
better educational outcomes. It has become increasingly important to use innovative
pedagogical models to engage learners. Digital storytelling is one of the innovative
pedagogical approaches that can engage students in deep and meaningful learning.
The mission of this research is to create a constructivist learning environment with
digital storytelling. The research investigates the pedagogical aspects of digital storytelling
and the impact of digital storytelling on student learning when teachers and students use
digital stories. This research develops a new e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt)
framework. This framework is based on the needs and capabilities of learners at various
stages of learning. A multi-site case study has been conducted in one Australian school at
primary and secondary levels. In selected classrooms, students and teachers have the
opportunity to engage in innovative learning experiences based on digital storytelling. In
order to enhance the reliability and validity of the research, multiple methods of data
collection and analysis have been used.
Data was collected with qualitative and quantitative methods. Rubric evaluation has
been used to collect quantitative data, while interviews and observation are used to collect iv

qualitative data. Data collection was based on mixed methods research to evaluate if and how
digital storytelling enhances teaching and learning outcomes.
The findings from this study suggest that digital storytelling is a powerful tool to
integrate instructional messages with learning activities to create more engaging and exciting
learning environments. It is a meaningful approach for creating a constructive learning
environment based on the principles of teaching and learning. Thus, this approach has the
potential to enhance student engagement and provide better educational outcomes for
learners.















v

Student Declaration
“I, Najat Smeda, declare that the PhD thesis entitled “Creating Constructivist Learning
Environments with Digital Storytelling” is no more than 100,000 words in length including
quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes.
This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for
the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this
thesis is my own work”.


Signature: Date: 19/2/2014













vi

Acknowledgements
First, I would like to pray to the GOD, thanking him for everything, and asking him for
forgiveness and support. My full respect and thanks to my family my mother, my father, my
husband and to my brothers and my sisters for their love, support, prayers and confidence.
I would like to extend my deep thanks and gratitude to all the people who contributed to
enrich my knowledge and improve my competencies.
I extend my deep thanks to my principal supervisor Associate Professor Nalin Sharda,
who guided me in this project, and provided me with valuable comments and advise, and to
my co-supervisor Dr. Eva Dakich, without whose encouragement and support, this research
would not have been completed. I am also grateful for the support I received from East
Preston Islamic School; I would like to thank all the students and teachers who participate in
this research. I would like also to thank Dr. Diane Brown for copyediting the thesis according
to the Australian Standards for Editing Practice (2nd edn., 2013) and, in particular,
Standards D and E. Also I would like to acknowledge the support and help provided by Prof.
Neil Diamond and Dr. Ewa Sztendur for their statistical support during analysing the data.
I would like to extend my thanks to my government, who made it possible, and
offered me this scholarship to do my PhD and also the Libyan embassy staff for providing
full support, solving all problems, and paving the way for a suitable study environment.
Finally, I would like to thank all my peers, for all the fun we have had together in the last four
years. vii


List of Publications

Smeda, N., Dakich, E., & Sharda, N. (2010). Developing A Framework for Advancing E-
Learning through Digital Storytelling. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the IADIS Multi
Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems. 26-31 July 2010. Freiburg,
Germany, pp. 169-176.

Smeda, N., Dakich, E., & Sharda, N. (2012). Digital Storytelling with Web 2.0 Tools for
Collaborative Learning. In Collaborative Learning 2.0: Open Educational Resources, A.
Okada, T. Connolly, & P. Scott (Eds.). Hershey: IGI Global, pp. 145-163.


Smeda, N., Dakich, E., & Sharda, N. (2012).Transforming Pedagogies through Digital
Storytelling: Framework and Methodology. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2nd
Annual International Conference on Education & e-Learning (EeL) 2012 Bali, Indonesia,
pp.206-211.

Smeda, N., Dakich, E., & Sharda, N. (2013). The Effectiveness of Digital Storytelling in the
Classrooms: A Case Study. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Advanced Learning
Technologies (ICALT), 2013 IEEE 13th International Conference on Advanced Learning
Technologies, pp. 491-492.

Smeda, N., Dakich, E., & Sharda, N. The Effectiveness of Digital Storytelling in the
Classrooms: A Comprehensive Study. Paper accepted at the Smart Learning Environments
Journal.

viii

Table of Contents

Abstract . iii
Student Declaration v
Acknowledgements vi
List of Publications . vii
Table of Contents . viii
List of Figures xii
List of Tables . xv
Chapter 1: Thesis overview 1
1.1 Introduction . 1
1.2 Research design 3
1.3 Research questions 4
1.4 Overview of the thesis . 4
Chapter 2: Literature Review 6
2.1 Introduction . 6
2.2 Technology integration . 6
2.2.1 Benefits . 8
2.2.2 Limitations . 9
2.3 Storytelling 9
2.4 Digital storytelling 11
2.5 Types of digital stories 12
2.5.1 Personal narrative . 12
2.5.2 Digital stories that examine historical events 12
2.5.3 Stories that inform or instruct 13
2.6 Existing models of digital storytelling 13
2.6.1 Dramatica 14
2.6.2 Adaptive Digital Storytelling 14
2.6.3 Storylining Suspense and Story Engine 15
2.6.4 Hypermedia Novel 15
2.6.5 Digital Storytelling Cookbook 15
2.6.6 Movement Oriented Design 16
2.7 Educational contributions to digital storytelling . 20
2.8 Pedagogical benefits of digital storytelling . 27
2.8.1 Personalised learning experience 27 ix

2.8.2 Fostering collaboration . 28
2.8.3 Building digital literacy . 30
2.8.4 Deep learning . 31
2.8.5 Active learning . 32
2.8.6 Enhancing learning engagement 33
2.9 Digital storytelling: A constructivist approach to learning . 35
2.10 Digital storytelling and curriculum . 38
2.11 Teachers’ reflections on digital storytelling 39
2.12 Summary of the literature review 41
Chapter 3: Overview of Method and Study Design 43
3.1 Introduction . 43
3.2 Research questions 43
3.3 Research overview 44
3.4 Research design 44
3.4.1 Definition of the case study 44
3.4.2 Advantages and limitations of the case study . 46
3.4.3 Selection of a case study for this research . 47
3.5 Implementation of digital storytelling in classrooms 48
3.5.1 Teachers’ workshop . 49
3.5.2 Students and teacher roles . 50
3.6 Research method . 52
3.6.1 Classroom observations . 52
3.6.2 Evaluation rubric . 53
3.6.3 Teacher interviews . 54
3.7 The e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt) framework 54
3.7.1 Framework overview 55
3.7.2 Framework levels . 56
3.7.3 Digital Storytelling Aspects 56
3.8 Participant groups . 62
3.9 Ethics consideration 63
3.10 Data analysis . 63
3.11 Summary . 63
Chapter 4: Engaging Primary School Students through Digital Storytelling . 65
4.1 Introduction . 65
4.2 The participants . 66
4.2.1 Digital storytelling in ESL class 66 x

4.2.2 Digital storytelling in library class 66
4.3 Using digital storytelling to enhance student engagement 67
4.3.1 Observation in ESL class . 67
4.3.2 Observation in library class . 81
4.4 The impact of digital storytelling on student outcomes 92
4.4.1 Evaluation of outcomes in ESL class . 94
4.4.2 Evaluation of outcomes in library class . 101
4.5 Primary school teachers’ reflections on digital storytelling 109
Chapter 5: Engaging Secondary School Students through Digital Storytelling 117
5.1 Introduction . 117
5.2 The participants . 117
5.2.1 Digital storytelling in an Art class . 118
5.2.2 Digital storytelling in Science class . 118
5.2.3 Digital storytelling in VCAL class . 118
5.3 Using digital storytelling to enhance student engagement 119
5.3.1 Observation in an Art class 119
5.3.2 Observation in Science class 130
5.3.3 Observation in VCAL class 139
5.4 The impact of digital storytelling on student outcomes 150
5.4.1 Evaluation of outcomes in an Art class 150
5.4.2 Evaluation of outcomes in Science class 158
5.4.3 Evaluation of outcomes in VCAL class 164
5.5 Secondary school teachers’ reflection on digital storytelling . 169
Chapter 6: Cross-Case Analysis 177
6.1 Introduction . 177
6.2 Cross-case analysis of observation data 177
6.2.1 Class collaboration 177
6.2.2 Knowledge gain 179
6.2.3 Student roles . 180
6.2.4 Teacher roles 182
6.2.5 Student engagement . 184
6.2.6 Technology integration 186
6.2.7 Modes of learning 187
6.3 Cross-case analysis of rubric data . 189
6.3.1 Overall mean level of student scores 189
6.3.2 Overall performance based on evaluation criteria 190 xi

6.4 Cross-case analysis of teacher interviews . 191
6.5 Summary . 192
Chapter 7: Results and Discussion 194
7.1 Introduction . 194
7.2 Using digital storytelling to enhance student engagement 195
7.3 The impact of digital storytelling on student outcomes 208
7.4 Summary . 213
Chapter 8: Conclusion and Recommendations 214
8.1 Introduction . 214
8.2 Thesis overview 214
8.3 Research outcomes 216
8.4 Significance and contributions to knowledge . 220
8.5 Limitations 221
8.6 Recommendations for future research 222
References 224
Appendices . 233
Appendix A: Classroom observation protocol 234
Appendix B: The scoring rubric instrument . 238
Appendix C: Teachers’ interview schedule 240
Appendix D: Information to participants 242
Appendix E: Consent form 246
Appendix F: Letter of approval from EPIC . 248
Appendix G: Parents’ consent form . 249
Appendix H: Examples of storyboard for ESL class . 250
Appendix I: Examples of storyboard for 3/4 class 251
Appendix J: Examples from the students’ digital stories 253
Appendix K: The e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt) Framework 255



xii

List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Creating Meaning and Emotional Movement (Sharda, 2005) . 17
Figure 2.2 Story development process 18
Figure 2.3 Movement Oriented Design (MOD) 19
Figure 3.1 The five levels of the eLDiSt framework 55
Figure 4.1 Class collaboration for ESL . 68
Figure 4.2 Knowledge gain for ESL . 70
Figure 4.3 Student roles for ESL 72
Figure 4.4 Teacher roles for ESL 73
Figure 4.5 Student engagement/instance for ESL . 74
Figure 4.6 Student engagement/time for ESL . 75
Figure 4.7 Technology integration for ESL 77
Figure 4.8 Modes of learning for ESL 79
Figure 4.9 Class collaboration for Years 3/4 83
Figure 4.10 Knowledge gain for Years 3/4 . 84
Figure 4.11 Student roles 86
Figure 4.12 Teacher roles . 87
Figure 4.13 Student engagement/instance for Years 3/4 88
Figure 4.14 Student engagement/time for Years 3/4 89
Figure 4.15 Technology integration for Years 3/4 90
Figure 4.16 Modes of learning for Years 3/4 91
Figure 4.17 Overall scores for digital story quality for ESL . 94
Figure 4.18 Student scores assigned by teachers for ESL 96
Figure 4.19 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 for ESL . 97
Figure 4.20 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 3 for ESL . 98
Figure 4.21 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 2 and Teacher 3 for ESL . 98
Figure 4.22 Mean scores for criteria for ESL . 99
Figure 4.23 Overall scores for digital story quality for Years 3/4 102
Figure 4.24 Student scores assigned by teachers for Years 3/4 104
Figure 4.25 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 for Years 3/4 . 105
Figure 4.26 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 3 for Years 3/4 . 106
Figure 4.27 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 2 and Teacher 3 for Years 3/4 . 106
Figure 4.28 Mean scores for criteria for Years 3/4 . 107
Figure 5.1 Class collaboration for Art class 121 xiii

Figure 5.2 Knowledge gain for Art class 123
Figure 5.3 Student roles for Art class . 124
Figure 5.4 Teacher roles for Art class . 125
Figure 5.5 Student engagement/instance for Art class 126
Figure 5.6 Student engagement/time for Art class 127
Figure 5.7 Technology integration for Art class . 128
Figure 5.8 Modes of learning for Art class . 129
Figure 5.9 Class collaboration for Science class . 132
Figure 5.10 Knowledge gain for Science class . 133
Figure 5.11 Student roles for Science class 134
Figure 5.12 Teacher roles for Science class 135
Figure 5.13 Student engagement/instance for Science class . 136
Figure 5.14 Student engagement/time for Science class . 137
Figure 5.15 Technology integration for Science class 138
Figure 5.16 Modes of learning for Science class 139
Figure 5.17 Class collaboration for VCAL class 142
Figure 5.18 Knowledge gain for VCAL class . 143
Figure 5.19 Student roles for VCAL class 144
Figure 5.20 Teacher roles for VCAL class . 145
Figure 5.21 Student engagement/instance for VCAL class 146
Figure 5.22 Student engagement/time for VCAL class 147
Figure 5.23 Technology integration for VCAL class 148
Figure 5.24 Modes of learning for VCAL class 149
Figure 5.25 Overall scores for digital story quality for Art class 151
Figure 5.26 Student scores assigned by teachers for Art class . 153
Figure 5.27 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 for Art class 154
Figure 5.28 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 3 for Art class 154
Figure 5.29 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 2 and Teacher 3 for Art class 155
Figure 5.30 Mean score for criteria for Art class 156
Figure 5.31 Overall scores for digital story quality for Science class . 158
Figure 5.32 Student scores assigned by teacher for Science class 160
Figure 5.33 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 for Science class . 160
Figure 5.34 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 1 and Teacher 3 for Science class . 161
Figure 5.35 Correlation between evaluations of Teacher 2 and Teacher 3 for Science class . 161
Figure 5.36 Mean score for criteria for Science class . 162
Figure 5.37 Overall scores for digital story quality for VCAL class 164 xiv

Figure 5.38 Student scores assigned by teacher for VCAL class . 166
Figure 5.39 Mean score for criteria for VCAL class 167
Figure 6.1 Class collaboration for the five case studies 178
Figure 6.2 Knowledge gain for the five case studies 180
Figure 6.3 Student roles for the five case studies . 181
Figure 6.4 Teacher roles for the five case studies . 183
Figure 6.5 Student engagement for the five case studies 185
Figure 6.6 Technology integration for the five case studies . 186
Figure 6.7 Modes of learning for the five case studies . 188
Figure 6.8 Overall scores for digital story quality for the five case studies 189
Figure 6.9 Mean score for criteria for the five case studies 191

















xv

List of Tables
Table 3.1. Relevant situation for different research methods . 47
Table 3.2 Story Aspects (SA) and definitions . 57
Table. 3.3 Learning Aspects (LA) and definitions 59
Table 3.4 Digital Creation Aspects (DCA) and definitions 60
Table 3.5 Combined Aspects (CA) and definitions 61
Table 3.6 Case study groups . 62
Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of overall student scores for ESL 95
Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics of criteria scores for ESL 100
Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics of overall student scores for Years 3/4 . 103
Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics of criteria scores for Years 3/4 108
Table 5.1 Descriptive statistics of overall student scores for Art class . 152
Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics of criteria scores for Art class . 157
Table 5.3 Descriptive statistics of overall student scores for Science class 159
Table 5.4 Descriptive statistics of criteria scores for Science class 163
Table 5.5 Descriptive statistics of overall student scores for VCAL class . 165
Table 5.6 Descriptive statistics of criteria scores for VCAL class 168




1

Chapter 1: Thesis overview


1.1 Introduction
From ancient times to the present, storytelling has served as a popular education tool, utilised
to pass knowledge from one generation to another. Over the past few years drastic changes
have been experienced in the processes used for creating stories, the variety of media used to
convey the message, and the target audience.
Storytelling, in general, is a powerful pedagogical paradigm that can be used to enhance
learning outcomes for general, scientific and technical education (Sharda, 2007a). Stories
have been told as a way of passing on traditions, heritage and history to future generations.
Even today people continue to tell stories through new digital media tools. A digital story can
be viewed as a merger between traditional storytelling and the use of multimedia technology
(Normann, 2011).
Technological advances, such as digital cameras, editing software and authoring tools,
have increased the use of technology in the classroom to help students in constructing their
own knowledge and ideas to present and share them more effectively (Standley, 2003).
As confirmed by Armstrong (2003), computers, digital cameras, editing software, and
other technologies are becoming more readily accessible in the classrooms, and provide
learners and teachers with the tools to create digital stories more easily than ever before.
Furthermore, digital storytelling helps students to develop their creativity to solve important
problems in innovative ways (Ohler, 2008). It is an effective pedagogical tool that enhances
learners’ motivation, and provides learners with a learning environment conducive for story
construction through collaboration, reflection and interpersonal communication. Students can 2

use multimedia software tools as well as other technology skills to create digital stories based
on given educational issues.
Digital storytelling is used as an embodiment of multimedia production for education
purposes. Therefore, this is becoming a part of our lives, and is on the threshold of becoming
an important part of teaching and learning as well. All of this is being facilitated by ready
access to hardware, such as digital cameras and scanners, in conjunction with easy to use
software. Many educational institutions have already been exploring the application of digital
storytelling for the past few years (Robin, 2008).
The power of storytelling as a pedagogical tool has been recognised since the beginning
of humanity, and in more recent times, for e-Learning (Neal, 2001). Digital storytelling has
become a modern incarnation of the traditional art of oral storytelling; it allows almost
anyone to use off-the-shelf hardware and software to weave personal stories with the help of
still / moving images, music, and sound, combined with the author’s creativity and
innovation.
Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino (2000) articulated why digital stories have such a
positive impact on learners’ motivation, and state: “Learners of all ages are more motivated
when they can see usefulness of what they are learning and use that information to do
something that has an impact on others” (p.61). In addition, digital storytelling can provide a
real way to help students learn how to use technology effectively in their learning,
particularly if provided with appropriate digital resources and usable editing tools. This
would further motivate them to create quality stories that could be presented, published and
shared with other students in the class (Sadik, 2008).
Therefore, this research project aimed to explore the impact of digital storytelling on
student engagement and outcomes. It focuses on exploring the potential of digital storytelling
as an innovative teaching and learning approach, and investigates the impact of digital 3

storytelling on student learning. The research involved a multi-site case study of an
Australian P-12 school. It explored the use of digital storytelling within the primary and
secondary curriculum. In selected classrooms students and teachers had the opportunity to
engage in innovative learning experiences based on digital storytelling.
In addition, the literature review has revealed that digital storytelling is a powerful
model for creating constructivist e-Learning environments. Digital storytelling has the
potential to engage learners in integrated approaches to learning with digital media.
Furthermore, digital storytelling enhances learners’ motivation, and helps teachers in building
constructivist learning environments. To facilitate the harnessing of these pedagogical
benefits we need an overarching framework for creating digital stories. This framework
should be cognisant of the needs and capabilities of learners at their various stages of learning
(i.e. catering for learners from primary school to university level, and even professional e-
Learning content creators).
This research presented a new e-Learning Digital Storytelling (eLDiSt) framework to be
able to use digital storytelling as a pedagogical model for constructivist learning. This
framework was developed for application at various stages of learning. The e-Learning Digital
Storytelling (eLDiSt) framework articulates how storytelling can be used at different levels of
education. This framework is cognisant of the Australian Core Skills Framework (ACSF)
(DEEWR, 2008), and takes into the account learning expected at the five levels specified in
the ACSF.
The outcomes of this research project aim to help teachers and learners tap into the
power of digital storytelling and partake in more engaged teaching and learning.
1.2 Research design
This research project aims to explore the impact of digital storytelling on student engagement
and outcomes. It focuses on exploring the potential of digital storytelling as an innovative 4

teaching and learning approach. And further, the impact of digital storytelling on student
learning when teachers and students use digital stories is investigated. This research involves
a multi-site case study of an Australian P-12 school, and explores the use of digital
storytelling within the primary and secondary curriculum. In the selected classrooms students
and teachers had the opportunity to engage in innovative learning experiences based on
digital storytelling. In order to enhance the reliability and validity of the research, multiple
methods of data collection and analysis have been used. Data are collected with qualitative
and quantitative methods. A rubric was used to collect quantitative data, while interviews and
observation have been used to collect qualitative data. Data collection and analysis of the
feedback provided by teachers was based on mixed methods research to evaluate if and how
digital storytelling enhances teaching and learning outcomes.
1.3 Research questions
The rationale for the project is to explore the pedagogical benefits of digital storytelling.
Therefore, the overall research question is: How can digital storytelling enhance the student
engagement and provide better educational outcomes for learners? This question can be
divided into the following sub-questions:
 How can digital storytelling be used to enhance student engagement?
 How can digital storytelling be used to improve educational outcomes?
 What are teacher perceptions about student learning through digital storytelling?
1.4 Overview of the thesis
Chapter one gives an overview of the thesis, the aims of the research and its contribution to
knowledge. It also sheds some light on the research methodologies used in the research.
Chapter two reviews the current literature and research in the field of digital storytelling.
The literature review is carried out in order to analyse the topic and understand the viewpoints
of researchers in the field. Chapter three gives a full picture of research methods and design tools required for this
research. This chapter explains details pertaining to the design and implementation of
methodology to investigate relevant research questions. Also, it presents the instruments
utilised in this research, details of participant groups, data collection and the analysis
approach.
Chapter four consists of the findings of primary school cases (ESL and Year 3/4),
chapter five presents the findings of secondary school cases (Years 7, 9 and 11), while chapter
six includes the cross-case analysis for the five case studies.
Chapter seven synthesises and analyses the study findings with the literature from
chapter two. Finally, the most significant findings during this research are addressed in chapter
eight, followed by the conclusions and implications, as well as recommendations for future
research.