Sách An Introduction to English Grammar

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition

xi

Acknowledgements

xii

1. Rules and variation 1

1.1 What is grammar? 1

1.2 Grammar and other aspects of language 1

1.3 Grammars of English 2

1.4 National varieties 2

1.5 Standard and non-standard English 3

1.6 Variation according to use 4

1.7 Descriptive rules and prescriptive rules 5

1.8 Why study grammar? 5

Exercises 6

Part I: The Grammar

2. The sentence 13

2.1 What is a sentence? 13

2.2 Irregular sentences and non-sentences 14

2.3 Simple and multiple sentences 15

2.4 Sentence types 16

2.5 Positive and negative sentences 17

2.6 Active and passive sentences 17

Exercises 18

3. The parts of the simple sentence 20

3.1 Structure, form, function 20

3.2 Subject, predicate, verb 21

3.3 Operator 22

3.4 Do, Be, Have

23

3.5 Subject and verb 23

3.6 Subject 25

3.7 Transitive verbs and direct object 26

3.8 Linking verbs and subject complement 27

3.9 Intransitive verbs and adverbials 28

3.10 Adverbial complement 29

3.11 Direct object and indirect object 30

3.12 Direct object and object complement 31

3.13 The basic sentence structures 32

3.14 The meanings of the sentence elements 34

Exercises 37

4. The structures of phrases 46

4.1 Phrase types 46

The noun phrase

4.2 The structure of the noun phrase 47

4.3 Determiners 48

4.4 Modifiers 48

4.5 Relative clauses 49

4.6 Appositive clauses 50

4.7 Apposition 50

4.8 Coordination 51

4.9 Noun phrase complexity 52

4.10 Functions of noun phrases 53

The verb phrase

4.11 The structure of the verb phrase 53

4.12 Main verbs 54

4.13 Tense, person, and number 55

4.14 Aspect 56

4.15 Voice 57

4.16 Expressing future time 59

4.17 The sequence of auxiliaries 59

4.18 Finite and non-finite verb phrases 61

4.19 Mood 62

4.20 Multi-word verbs 64

The adjective phrase

4.21 The structure of the adjective phrase 67

4.22 Functions of adjective phrases 68

The adverb phrase

4.23 The structure of the adverb phrase 69

4.24 Functions of adverb phrases 69

The prepositional phrase

4.25 The structure of the prepositional phrase 70

4.26 Functions of prepositional phrases 71

Exercises 72

vi Contents

5. Word classes 86

5.1 Open and closed classes 86

5.2 Word classes and word uses 87

Nouns

5.3 Noun suffixes 88

5.4 Noun classes 88

5.5 Number 90

5.6 Gender 90

5.7 Case 90

5.8 Dependent and independent genitives 91

Main Verbs

5.9 Verb suffixes 92

5.10 Regular and irregular verbs 92

5.11 Classes of irregular verbs 93

Adjectives

5.12 Adjective suffixes 95

5.13 Adjective classes 95

5.14 Gradability and comparison 96

Adverbs

5.15 Adverb suffixes 98

5.16 Gradability and comparison 98

Pronouns

5.17 Pronoun classes 98

5.18 Personal pronouns 100

5.19 Possessives 101

5.20 Reflexive pronouns 102

5.21 Demonstrative pronouns 102

5.22 Reciprocal pronouns 103

5.23 Interrogative pronouns 103

5.24 Relative pronouns 104

5.25 Indefinite pronouns and numerals 104

Determiners

5.26 Classes of determiners 106

5.27 Central determiners 106

5.28 The articles and reference 107

5.29 Pre-determiners 109

5.30 Post-determiners 109

Auxiliaries

5.31 Classes of auxiliaries 110

5.32 Meanings of the modals 111

5.33 Conjunctions 111

5.34 Prepositions 112

Exercises 113

Contents vii

6. Sentences and clauses 121

6.1 Sentence types 121

6.2 Questions 121

6.3 Imperatives 123

6.4 Exclamatives 123

6.5 Speech acts 124

6.6 Compound sentences 125

6.7 Complex sentences 125

6.8 Non-finite and verbless clauses 126

6.9 Functions of subordinate clauses 127

6.10 Sentence complexity 129

6.11 There-structures 130

6.12 Cleft sentences 131

6.13 Anticipatory it

131

Exercises 132

Part II: The Applications

7. Usage problems 141

Subject-verb agreement

7.1 The general rules 141

7.2 And

142

7.3 Or, nor

143

7.4 With

144

7.5 Collective nouns 144

7.6 Indefinite pronouns 145

7.7 Quantity phrases 146

7.8 Singular nouns ending in -s

147

7.9 Who, which, that

147

7.10 What

148

7.11 There is, There are

149

7.12 Citations and titles 149

Case

7.13 Subject complement 149

7.14 Coordinated phrases 149

7.15 After as and than

150

7.16 After but

150

7.17 After let

151

7.18 Who, whom

151

7.19 Case with -ing clauses 152

Auxiliaries and verbs

7.20 Problems with auxiliaries 153

viii Contents

7.21 Lie, lay

153

7.22 Present tense 153

7.23 Past and -ed participle 154

7.24 Past and past subjunctive 154

7.25 Multiple negation 155

Adjectives and adverbs

7.26 Confusion between adjectives and adverbs 156

7.27 Comparison 157

7.28 Only

158

7.29 Dangling modifiers 158

Exercises 159

8. Style 168

8.1 Style in writing 168

Emphasis

8.2 End-focus 168

8.3 Front-focus 169

8.4 There-structures and cleft sentences 169

8.5 Parenthetic expressions 170

Clarity

8.6 End-weight 170

8.7 Misplaced expressions 171

8.8 Abstract nouns 173

8.9 Modifiers in noun phrases 174

8.10 Subordination 174

8.11 Parallelism 175

8.12 Repeated sounds 176

8.13 Pronoun reference 177

Consistency

8.14 Pronoun agreement 178

8.15 Tense consistency 178

Exercises 179

9. Punctuation 183

9.1 Punctuation rules 183

9.2 Sentence fragments and fragmentary sentences 184

9.3 Run-on sentences and comma splices 186

9.4 Coordinated main clauses 188

9.5 Direct speech 189

9.6 Citations 192

9.7 Questions 193

9.8 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses 194

9.9 Restrictive and non-restrictive apposition 195

Contents ix

9.10 Adverbial clauses 196

9.11 Vocatives and interjections 198

9.12 Avoidance of misunderstanding 199

9.13 Genitives of nouns 199

9.14 Genitives of pronouns 200

Exercises 201

10. English in use 208

10.1 Register variation 208

10.2 Conversational English 208

10.3 Unscripted monologue 217

10.4 Sports commentaries 219

10.5 Email English 223

10.6 The language of literature 227

10.6.1 Foregrounding 230

10.6.2 Ambiguity 233

Exercises 238

Appendix: Spelling 246

A.1 Spelling, pronunciation, and meaning 246

A.2 Spelling variants 248

A.3 Spelling rules for short and long vowel sounds 248

A.4 Suffixes 250

A.5 Prefixes 255

A.6 Other aids to spelling 256

A.7 Homophones: Words pronounced similarly 257

Exercises 263

Glossary

267

Further reading

295

Index

297

x Contents